Historian
Roger D. McGrath takes issue with the fundamental argument of The 1619 Project.
SINS OF OMISSION
The call for slavery reparations is reverberating
throughout the land once again. It will be entertaining to watch the Democratic
presidential candidates for 2020 position themselves on this topic. They must know
the very idea is irrational and entirely impractical, but at the same time they
will worry that one candidate or another will endorse the idea and leave them
outflanked. New Jersey Sen. Cory Booker has already introduced a bill that
would create a commission to study the issue of reparations. Massachusetts Sen.
Elizabeth Warren likes the idea of reparations not only for American blacks but
also, not surprisingly, for American Indians. She must be counting on her share
of the largesse for her possible 1/1024th Cherokee heritage.
California Sen. Kamala
Harris thinks reparations might be a course of action to help lift blacks out
of poverty. Former Texas Rep. Robert “Beto” O’Rourke, like Cory Booker, wants a
commission to study the issue. Former San Antonio mayor Julián Castro is out in
front of them all, declaring monetary reparations should be issued to those who
have slave ancestors. “If under the Constitution we compensate people because we
take their property, why wouldn’t you compensate people who actually were property?”
he asked CNN host Jake Tapper.
There’s a tacit assumption in all this: The U.S.
government—i.e., the American taxpayer— is the one who should be paying the reparations.
The U.S. government, however, never owned any slaves. Moreover, the U.S. government
fought a war, though not initiated to abolish slavery, which ended the evil practice.
The casualty figures for the Union forces are staggering, upwards of 400,000
killed and probably 300,000 wounded. Now descendants of these dead and maimed
soldiers are, through taxation, supposed to pay descendants of the slaves freed
by those same soldiers.
Black slavery was established in North America long
before there was a United States. The U.S. didn’t come into being until 1788
when the Constitution was ratified. People who talk about “250 years of slavery,”
whether they know it or not, are not talking about the United States. Slavery existed
in the United States for only 77 years. Before that was the brief period of the
Confederation government and the Continental Congress, and before that we were
the British North American colonies.
The 250-year claim comes from the sale of a handful of African slaves in 1619 in the British colony of Virginia.
The
slaves were sold by the captain of an English privateer, sailing under Dutch authority,
which intercepted and captured a Portuguese slave ship in the Caribbean en
route from Africa to Mexico.
The captain knew better than to try to sell the slaves at an island
port in the Caribbean and instead sailed north to Virginia. But this was not a
typical event.
European slavers normally purchased slaves at a port in
equatorial West Africa from a tribal chieftain in exchange for rum and other European
trading goods. Africans most often were enslaved as a consequence of losing a
war to a more powerful tribe or being captured in a raid—or being sold by their
own families to cover debts.
One could say European slave traders, and later
Americans, who were engaged in the despicable business never enslaved anyone but
merely changed the location of enslavement. Logic would therefore suggest that reparations
be sought from the descendants of the more powerful tribes of equatorial West
Africa, who attacked and enslaved their weaker neighbors mercilessly.
The best evidence suggests Africans had been enslaving each other for thousands
of years by the time Europeans arrived on African shores. By then, Arabs had
been trading for slaves from equatorial West Africa for several hundred years. Instead
of loading slaves onto ocean-going ships, Arab slavers took them up the Niger
River or on overland trails to Timbuktu, the point of departure for caravans that
crossed the Sahara Desert to Egypt and other points east.
Europeans transported
slaves in the opposite direction, westward across the Atlantic to South
America, especially Brazil, and to the Caribbean and Central America. Only a small
minority of the slaves came to the British North American colonies.
Yet, the largest population of blacks in the Western Hemisphere today is in the
U.S.
There’s a reason for that. The voyage to Brazil was relatively quick and easy,
making slaves there fairly inexpensive, which meant they were expendable. The opposite was the case for the voyage to Virginia. Slaves were expensive and became more
so when American participation in the international slave trade was ended in 1808,
as required by the Constitution.
Slaves were far better fed, clothed, housed, and
treated medically on these shores than they were in other places, particularly Brazil,
simply because an owner would lose a bundle of money should a slave die. None of this
is to condone or justify slavery in the American colonies or later in the U.S.,
but it is to say that the treatment of slaves varied greatly in the Americas,
and given the abominable institution, the planters of the Old South were
generally far more concerned with the welfare of their slaves than were their
counterparts elsewhere.
This concern did not extend to white laborers, who were
hired when a job was considered too exhausting or too dangerous for a black slave. Frederick Law Olmstead, the architect of New
York’s Central Park, traveled throughout the South on the eve of the Civil War
and was surprised to find, again and again, that Irishmen were used instead of
slaves for the work of draining swampland, felling trees, digging ditches,
quarrying rock, and clearing forests because “it
was much better to have Irish do it, who cost nothing to the planter if they
died, than to use up good field-hands in such severe employment.”
At a landing
on the Alabama River, Irish deckhands caught and stowed heavy bales of cotton after they had come
hurtling down a long chute from a towering bluff.
When Olmstead asked why slaves were
not doing the work, the ship’s captain replied, “The niggers are worth too much
to be risked here; if the Paddies are knocked overboard, or get their backs
broke, nobody loses anything!”
The death rate among Irish laborers was shocking
and had been for several decades before Olmstead toured the South. The New
Basin Canal, which connected New Orleans and Lake Pontchartrain, was built by
Irish labor during the 1830’s. The Irish workmen dug the canal with hand shovels,
excavating more than half a million cubic yards of earth. Lacking dynamite, they
used axes to fell huge bald cypress trees along the route.
They were paid $20 a
month and given room and board. Tyrone Power, a famous Irish actor of the
period, visited his countrymen and described the scene in 1834, saying he
found:…hundreds of fine fellows labouring here beneath a sun that at this winter
season was at times insufferably fierce, and amidst a pestilential swamp whose
exhalations were fetid to a degree scarcely endurable even for a few moments … mid-deep
in black mud … bearing burdens it made one’s shoulders ache to look upon;
exposed meantime to every change of temperature, in log huts, laid down in the
very swamp. …
Here they subsist on the coarsest fare … often at the mercy of a
hard contractor, who wrings his profits from their blood. More than 10,000—some
estimates put the number as high as 30,000—Irish workers died in the process.
They died of cholera. They died of yellow fever. They died of alligator
attacks. They died of water-moccasin bites. They died in accidents.
They were buried where they fell, often in mass graves. White privilege.
Meanwhile,
there were more than a quarter-million free blacks in the South and nearly
4,000 of them were slave masters who owned more than 20,000 black slaves.
William Ellison, only one of several hundred black slaveholders in South
Carolina, owned 63 slaves as recorded in the U.S. Census of 1860. In
Charleston, 125 free blacks were slaveholders, and in Charleston City, the port
city for Charleston, the largest owner of slaves was a black woman.
Black partners
Justus Angel and Mistress Horry owned 84 slaves each and were notorious for
slave trading. In neighboring North Carolina, 69 blacks were slaveholders.
The
most prominent of them was John Stanley, who owned three plantations and 163
slaves. One of dozens of black slavemasters in Maryland, Nat Butler owned a
farm but made his real money from slave trading. He lured runaway slaves to his
farm and then, depending on the size of the reward, either returned them to
their owner or sold them to plantations in the Deep South.
The largest
concentration of black slave owners was in Louisiana. Marie Metoyer owned 287
slaves and more than 1,000 acres of land. The widow C. Richards and her son
P.C. Richards had 152 slaves working their sugar plantation. Antoine Dubuclet
had 100 slaves on his sugar plantation.
Cotton planter Auguste Donatto owned 70
slaves, as did Antoine Decuire. Verret Polen owned 69. Dozens of other blacks
owned 30 or more slaves. Every one of the 13 states and most of the major
cities that would become part of the Confederacy had substantial numbers of
black slave-owners. New Orleans by both numbers and by proportion had the most.
A staggering 28 percent of free blacks in the Crescent City owned slaves. With
the Civil War imminent, free blacks in New Orleans pledged their support of the
Confederacy, declaring:
The free colored population of Louisiana… own slaves,
and they are dearly attached to their native land… and they are ready to shed
their blood for her defense. They have no sympathy for abolitionism; no love
for the North, but they have plenty for Louisiana. … They will fight for her in
1861 as they fought in 1814-1815. Black slavemasters are omitted from most
textbooks in American history or mentioned only as having bought a family
member to free him. That occurred, but only in a minority of cases.
Moreover,
if that were the intention of the black slaveholder, why was the family member
not immediately manumitted but instead listed as a slave in census data? Also,
regularly omitted in discussions of American slavery is the person who
established the precedent for it all: Anthony Johnson. He was one of those
slaves sold in 1619 in Virginia. By law, though, he was sold as an indentured
servant.
When he had served his term of indenture, he was freed and awarded
with land. He became a successful tobacco farmer and bought indentured
servants, both black and white, to work his land. When he refused to release
black field hand John Casor from indenture, a white neighbor, for whom Casor
wanted to work, supported Casor in suing for his freedom.
Johnson argued Casor
had never signed a contract of indenture but had always been a slave, and
therefore Johnson was under no obligation to release him. In 1654 the court
decided in Johnson’s favor, making him—a former black slave from Africa—the
first legal slaveholder in the American colonies. If blacks owned thousands of
black slaves so, too, did American Indians.
By the middle of the 1700s, various
tribes, especially the Five Civilized Tribes of the Southeast, began to acquire
black slaves. By the end of the century the Cherokee owned nearly a thousand
and the Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Chickasaw several thousand more. The
numbers grew sharply during the early nineteenth century. When the tribes were
removed to Indian Territory, mostly during the 1830s, they took thousands of
black slaves with them. Accompanying the Cherokee on their “Trail of Tears”
were some 2,000 black slaves.
They were put to work on Cherokee farms in the
new tribal home, raising cotton, corn, and garden crops, and tending hogs and
cattle. “As far as they are able … even the very poor Indians will manage to
get possession of one or two negroes to perform their heavy work,” noted Henry
C. Benson, a Methodist minister to the newly relocated Indians. “Indians are
known to cherish an invincible disgust for manual labor.” The tribes enacted
their own slave codes that grew progressively harsher as the years of the 19th
century passed.
The Cherokee constitution of 1827, for example, prohibited
slaves from owning property, selling goods, marrying Indians, voting, or
consuming alcohol. The Cherokee subsequently adopted laws that prohibited
teaching blacks to read, instituted the death penalty for a slave who raped a
Cherokee, and prohibited free blacks from living within the Cherokee Nation.
Slaveholders were given great latitude in dealing with their chattel property.
While some masters were lenient, others were brutal. One Cherokee buried a
slave alive as punishment for robbery. Other slaves were beaten to death or
maimed as punishment.
After a black slave killed his Choctaw master in a
conspiracy of sorts, the slave and his aunt, also a slave, were tied to a wood
pile and burned to death. The Five Civilized Tribes cooperated fully with the
enforcement of the fugitive slave laws, whether this meant returning slaves to
white owners or to Indian slavemasters.
In 1842, in an organized action, some
20 black slaves stole firearms and ran away from their Cherokee owners.
Stealing horses and mules along the way, they headed south into the Creek
Nation and were joined by another 15 runaway slaves. The combined group came
upon a white man, James Edwards, and his Delaware Indian sidekick, Billy
Wilson, who were returning some runaway slaves to the Choctaw—and killed them
both.
Meanwhile, a force of Cherokee and Creek, in an unusual instance of
cooperation, were hot on the runaways’ trail. They captured them near the Red
River. Five of the slaves were later found guilty of the murders of Edwards and
Wilson and put to death. The rest were returned to their owners. What punishment
they suffered is unknown.During the antebellum decade, slavery reached its peak
among the Five Civilized Tribes.
The Cherokee, numbering only about 20,000
themselves, owned nearly 5,000 black slaves; the Choctaw 2,500; the Creeks
2,000; and the Chickasaw and Seminole about a thousand each. To protect their
slave property, the Five Civilized Tribes, except for a few dissident factions,
sided with the Confederacy when the Civil War erupted. “The war now raging,”
declared the Cherokee, “is a war of Northern cupidity and fanaticism against
the institution of African servitude; against the commercial freedom of the
South, and against the political freedom of the States.”
Nearly 20,000 Indians
from the Five Civilized Tribes served in more than a dozen Indian units in the
Confederate Army during the Civil War. The more prominent of the units included
the Cherokee Mounted Rifles, the Thomas’ Legion of Eastern Cherokee, the Cherokee
Cavalry, the Chickasaw Cavalry, the Chickasaw Infantry, the Choctaw and
Chickasaw Mounted Rifles, the Choctaw Cavalry, the Creek Mounted Volunteers,
and the Seminole Mounted Volunteers. In 1864 the Indian Cavalry Brigade was
organized and commanded by Cherokee Nation leader Brig. Gen. Stand Watie. Watie
did not surrender his brigade until June 1865, making him the last Confederate
general to surrender.
American Indians not only served in the Confederate
Army but also in the Confederate Congress. One of several to serve in both was
Elias Cornelius Boudinot. He was a lieutenant colonel in the army, fighting in
the battles of Pea Ridge, Locust Grove, and Prairie Grove, as well as the
Cherokee delegate to Congress.
The 13th Amendment, ratified during the fall of
1865, abolished slavery in the U.S. as a whole but not among the Five Civilized
Tribes. Although the Indians were “under the protection of the United States,”
it was unclear how the Constitution applied to them. As a consequence, blacks
remained as slaves in Indian Territory until July and August 1866 after the
U.S. government had negotiated new treaties with the individual tribes that
included specific clauses prohibiting slavery. Even then, some slaveholders
among the Five Civilized Tribes didn’t comply until 1867.
Unfortunately, these complexities and uncomfortable
facts of slavery in the United States are unknown to the majority of Americans
today. I suspect those now talking about reparations are among them.